Antimicrobial Resistance: Mechanisms, Molecular Epidemiology, and Global Surveillance

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the molecular mechanisms underlying antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in clinically significant bacterial pathogens, encompassing beta-lactamases, efflux pumps, target modification, and horizontal gene transfer. It critically examines the global epidemiology of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) organisms, with particular reference to ESKAPE pathogens and WHO priority bacteria. The chapter also evaluates current global surveillance frameworks and the translational pipeline for novel antimicrobial agents and resistance-breaking strategies.